Review Questions:

What is ethics, and how can it be distinguished from morality?  

Ethics, comes from the Greek word, ethos and it is the study of morality. On the other hand, morality, which is from the Latin word, mores, refers to the system rules for guiding human conduct and principles for evaluating those rules.

What is meant by a moral system? What are some of the key differences between the "rules of conduct" and the "principles of evaluation" that comprise a moral system?  

Moral system is the system of morality. The system includes moral rules and principle. The rules of conduct are action-guiding rules – in the form of either directives or social policies. While the principles of evaluation are evaluative standards used to justify rules of conduct.

What does Bernard Gert mean when he descirbes morality in terms of a "public system"? Why is the notion of "personal morality" any oxymoron?  

Morality in terms of ‘public system’ means everyone knows the rules.  Personal morality is an oxymoron or contradictory notion because as it is already formulated, morality is a public system where there exists public rules and that it applies to all member of that system. It cannot be put in a personal or private view.  

Why does Bernard Gert believe that morality is an "informal" system? How is moral system both similar to, and different from, a game?  

Morality is an informal system because the moral system has no formal authoritative judges presiding over it and the rules are informal. A moral system is similar to a game for it has rules and players (people). In connection with this, the rules in a game are used by the players as a guide on how to play the game. As for the difference, it requires that there should be someone who will enforce the rules in a game, whereas in moral system, there is no need. Further, a game does not require everybody to participate, but in a moral system, everyone is obliged to take part. 

Describe how the ideals of "rationality" and "impartiality" function in Gert's moral system.  

In rationality, the moral system is based on principles of logical reason accessible to ordinary persons. This means that everyone can easily understand the principles of the system. Impartiality, on the other hand, the system is not partial to any one group or individual. Here, moral rules are ideally designed to apply equitably to all  participants in the system.

What are values, and what are some of the key differences between moral values and nonmoral values?  

Value, comes from the Latin word, valere, which means worth or being of worth. Values are objects of our desires or interests. Moral values are derived from core nonmoral values by using the notion of impartiality.  With regards to, nonmoral values, it originates from desires and involves rational self-interests. 

How do religion, law, and philosophy each provide different grounds for justifying a moral principle? 

In justifying a moral principle, the ground for religion is through the obedience to divine authority. While with philosophy, it would be the ethical theory and logical

arguments. Law then is through the obedience to a legal system.

What is the method of philosophical ethics, what is a "philosophical study"? How is a philosophical study used in an analysis of moral issue?  

The method of philosophical ethics is it engages in a philosophical study of morality at the same time performance of normative analysis. Philosophical study requires that a consistent methodological scheme will be used to verify hypothesis and theories, and these verification schemes should meet criteria of rationality and impartiality. Philosophical study use ethical theory in the analysis of moral issues.

How does a philosophical study differe from a descriptive study? Why are sociological and anthropological studies of morality usually descriptive rather than normative in nature? 

While philosophical study has 'similarity with scientific study, Descriptive study is essentially a type of scientific study. The reason why sociological and anthropological studies of morality are usually descriptive is because they describe or report how people in various cultures and groups behave with respect to the rules of a moral system.  

Summarize the four different kinds of "discusssion stoppers" in ethical discourse that we examined. 

People Disagree on Solutions to Moral Issues 

It states that people can never reach any agreement on how to solve issues of morality for they have different opinions about it.

Who am I to Judge Others?

This tells something about the uneasy feeling people have when they are asked to judge the moral beliefs of others. It is because, they are also humans like other people; who are they to have that authority or power to judge as the question says.

Morality is Simply a Private Matter

This is about the notion of people that morality is personal in nature that is why it must be treated as a private matter.

Morality is Simply a Matter for Individual Cultures to Decide 

This does not assume that morality is a private matter but rather it says that morality can be best understood for groups or cultures.

Why are these discussion stoppers problematic for the advancement of dialogue and debate about ethical issues? 

The ‘discussion stoppers’ are said to be problematic because often they close down what to be ‘valuable discussions’. They are those questions that stop or block

the further discussion and understanding of morality.

What is moral relativism? How is it different from cultural relativism?

Moral relativism is a normative thesis for it asserts that one should not make moral judgments about the behavior of people who live in cultures other than one’s own. Cultural relativism then is a descriptive thesis and has this belief that morality is simply a matter for individual cultures to decide. Here, different cultures have different beliefs about what constitutes morally right and wrong behavior.

What is ethical theory, and what important functions do ethical theories play in the analysis of moral issues?

Ethical theory serves as a guide for people in their analysis and investigations of moral issues involving cybertechnology. Its function provides people with a framework for analyzing moral issues via a scheme that is internally coherent and consistent as well as comprehensive and systematic.

The feature of consequence-based ethical theories is that it focuses on the expected outcome or consequences of an act to determine whether or not the action is

moral. It states that the more utility actions and policies there are, the more it can be morally acceptable. 

The act utilitarianism believes that those actions producing good and happiness for the majority are what can be considered morally accepted. As for rule

utilitarianism, an act would be morally accepted only if the consequences of following the rules would bring good and happiness for the majority.

The characteristic of duty-based theories is that it is based on Immanuel Kant’s concept of duty when it comes to judging human actions. The said theories reject the idea of morality bringing happiness or promoting consequences. Duty-based theories states that morality can only be proved by the concept of duty or the obligation that one person have for each other.

The focus of rule deontology is the dominance of rules, while act deontology gives more emphasis on the individual actions over rules. Rule deontology is when rules

for that act is observed to everyone – meaning, there is no exception to it. For instance, if a certain act of an individual is wrong, then it should also be considered

wrong for other people who will attempt to do it. The principle here is that everyone must be treated fairly especially when it comes to judging whether his or her

actions are moral or not. On the other hand, act deontology, is about analyzing the individual positions with the help of prima facie duties to know what moral action

to take. 

Contract-based ethical theories refer to the moral system being present or established because of the contractual agreements between individuals. In other words,

moral system exists because of the contracts made and agreed upon by individuals. With this, the initiation to create a moral system comes from the individual

itself.

Character-based or virtue-based ethical theories do not take into account the consequences of an action, duties, and social contracts when it comes to moral system

discussion. Its focus then would have to be the character traits of an individual and the development of good character traits in which reflected in the habits of a

person.

Just Consequentialist of Moore incorporates the utilitarian aspect by considering the harmful consequences brought by unethical activities. Also, Moore also includes

in the judgment of right and wrong both the welfare of the majority and individuals.

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